Indonesia and Japan in War: Same Bed, Different Dreams

SEVERAL Sumatran youths expressed their wish to study in Japan to Naito Keizo, a Japanese consul based in Medan. Naito was unsure at first because of the youths’ limited knowledge of the Land of the Rising Sun. However, considering that there were also other young Javanese who were interested in studying in Japan, Naito went on to persuade Uchida Koya, the Foreign Minister in Tokyo, through a letter sent in November 1932.

"... I implore for foreigners like them who still don't understand Japanese to be given leeway to study in Japanese schools," Naito wrote in his letter which was published by Ken'ichi Goto, a Waseda University historian, in Jepang dan Pergerakan Kebangsaan Indonesia.

Naito's request was ultimately granted. According to Ken'ichi, the first two Indonesians who departed for Japan to study were Madjid Usman and Mahjuddin Gaus, both from Minangkabau, West Sumatra. Usman studied law at Meiji University, while Gaus studied medicine at Jikei University and later became the only Indonesian who completed education and achieved a doctorate degree in Japan before World War II.

In Japan, Gaus and Usman initiated the establishment of a student friendship organization called Serikat Indonesia (the Indonesian Union) in 1933 in which Gaus was elected as a chairman while Usman became its secretary general. Serikat Indonesia comprised no more than ten members, among which was WJS Poerwadarminta – later known as a linguist and compiler of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (the Great Dictionary of Indonesian Language) – who was teaching Malay at the Tokyo Foreign Language School. Poerwadarminta, whose house regularly served as a meeting place, became the organization's treasurer.

Serikat Indonesia compiled a periodical called Berita Indonesia which contained essays by students about their experiences in Japan. The periodical was then sent to Indonesia to be published by Bintang Timoer in Batavia and the Radio newspaper which was printed in Padang, Gaus and Usman's hometown.

Organizationally, the activities of Serikat Indonesia weren't pertinent to politics. "However, the use of the word 'Indonesia' in Malay for the organization's name clearly shows that they have overcome regionalism and ethnicity, and firmly ensured their unity as an Indonesian nation," wrote Ken'ichi.

Seizing the Opportunity

Japan's military victory over Russia in the Tsushima War in 1904–1905 correspondingly raised Japan's image as a developed country, in addition to its already astonishing economic expansion. Thousands of the legendary Toko Jepang (Japanese retail shops) spread across Indonesia and provided low-priced goods. Many Indonesians also went to Japan to learn from the country's success in progressing their economy.

According to Peter Post, this obvious domination of Japan threatened the Western firms, causing the Dutch East Indies government to abandon its "open door" policies in 1933 and started to intervene in economic matters, such as by instituting protectionist measures to protect Dutch textile industries and large Dutch trading firms. On the other hand, since the protectionist policies threatened its economic foundation, Japan began to make Pan-Asian appeals.

"These appeals fell on fertile ground and were picked up by nationalist movements," wrote Peter Post in the introduction to The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War.

A number of Indonesian nationalist figures turned their attention to Japan and visited the country. One of them was Parada Harahap, editor of the Bintang Timoer newspaper.

From November 1933 to January 1934, Parada led a trade and industry delegation to visit Japan. In his travel memoir, Menoedjoe Matahari Terbit published in 1934, he praised Japan's improvement and called on the Indonesian students to change their objective to continuing education in Japan instead of Europe.

"Where should we go to study? Definitely to Japan!" Parada wrote.

One of the youths that joined Parada's group of delegates was Sudibjo Tjokronolo, a graduate of Algemeene Middelbare School which was equivalent to high school in Batavia. At first, Sudibjo wished to continue his education in the Netherlands like most of the other intellectuals. However, due to financial limitations, Sudibjo shifted his destination to Japan.

"I think Japan was good enough as a study destination. Isn't Japan capable of winning the war against Russia, a Western country? Isn't Japan classified as equal to European countries?" Sudibjo Tjokronolo wrote in Suka Duka Pelajar Indonesia di Jepang: Sekitar Perang Pasifik 1942–1945 published by Persada Senior team, an organization for Indonesian alumni of schools in Japan. "Japan has a national spirit that can be learned and internalized." added Sudibjo.

At that time, Japan offered cheaper tuition fees than the Netherlands. There was even a rumor among the Indonesian scholars that living in Japan could be afforded with only 50-80 yen per month, while it would require the three to fourfold amount in the Netherlands.

All these actions correlated to Japan didn't go unnoticed by the Dutch East Indies government. In a report published in 1942, the Dutch East Indies government mentioned "subversive activities" conducted massively for a decade by the Japanese; from tourists to scientists, from trade representatives to spies. They ran a Pan-Asiatic campaign through publication, financial support, or cheap product distribution, as well as by encouraging Indonesians to study in Japan at cheap cost with a goal to make the natives turn their back on the Dutch East Indies government.

"A few dozen young men attracted by the cheapness of the education offered to them and the financial support which was promised to those who could not even pay these low fees, went to Japan," wrote the Netherlands Information Bureau in Ten Years of Japanese Burrowing in the Netherlands East Indies.

The report also mentioned that once the students arrived in Japan, those who were ready to act as tools for Japanese propaganda were financially assisted. "They were frequently invited to attend meetings of the Pan-Asiatic groups. At congresses they were put forward as "Indonesians" and leaders of a race that had risen against their Netherlands oppressors," the report claimed.

To the Japanese themselves, the domination over the South was a duty based on the political doctrine developed by The Great Asiatic Association (Dai Ajia Kyokai), an influential organization in Tokyo established in January 1933. It was once again asserted in February 1938 by Prince Konoye who was a few times prime minister that Japan was responsible to create a new era in Eastern Asia, which was the commonwealth of Free Asiatic Peoples.

I think Japan was good enough as a study destination. Isn't Japan capable of winning the war against Russia, a Western country?

Political Involvement

The leaders of Serikat Indonesia were frequently invited to attend various meetings especially from the Great Asiatic Association. From those meetings, Gaus established a friendship with Nakatani Takeyo, secretary general of the association. "Gaus had a very close relationship, like siblings, with Nakatani Takeyo, secretary general of that Great Asiatic Association," Ken'ichi wrote.

His friendship with Nakatani also formed Gaus' political attitude as he was showing more repulsion towards colonialism and demanding his nation's independence. This tendency was shown when Gaus spoke in the Great Asiatic Congress held by the Great Asiatic Association in December 1933.

"Independence is a birthright of humans of any nation, we also want to be free like the other countries," said Gaus in Kenang-Kenangan Gaus, published by Ken'ichi.

On the other hand, Usman was influenced by Joesoef Hassan, his college friend from a different major. Hassan, who was studying economics, was smuggled by Toindo Kyoei-Doshikai (Japanese People's Association in Batavia) to investigate the possibilities of Japan attacking Java.

In "Diskusi Gerakan Nasionalisme Asia" (Discussion of the Asian Nationalist Movement) on 21 February 1935, it was Usman's turn to speak up. In front of the Asian countries' representatives, he delivered his political views. "These white colonists have in many ways oppressed our people politically, economically, and culturally," said Usman in Dai Ajia Shugi (The Great Asia), published by Ken’ichi.

Gaus and Usman's activities were undoubtedly being monitored closely by Dutch intelligence in Japan. Shortly after delivering his speech in a forum in February 1935, Usman was threatened by the Dutch intelligence to not advance with his political activities. That intimidation, however, didn't stop Usman from attending numerous meetings and speech invitations. It was no wonder, as mentioned by Ken'ichi, that Usman was a notable figure in the front line of the anti-Dutch discussions.

In 1938, Sudjono, a young man from Brancang, Madiun, who was also a law graduate of Leiden University, came to Japan. Sudjono who replaced Poerwadarminta's position as Malay teacher in Osaka resumed Gaus' role as the leader of Serikat Indonesia. More Indonesian students had come to study in Japan at that time although those who joined Serikat Indonesia were still no more than 20 people.

Under Sudjono's leadership, Serikat Indonesia was leaning towards a more radical side. In November 1939, when Majelis Islam A'la Indonesia, federation of Islamic organizations in Indonesia attended Dai Nippon Kaikyokai (Japanese Islam Association), Serikat Indonesia raised a red-and-white flag and chanted “Indonesia Raya”, something that was banned in Indonesia.

Joining the War

The Indonesian students also played their own role during World War II, particularly by assisting the Japanese army. Sudjono, Serikat Indonesia's leader, was asked to join the war troops heading for Java.

"It is imperative for you to contact the Indonesian leaders there," wrote Sudjono quoting Nakayama, the colonel that came to pick him up, published in Mr. Sudjono: Mendarat dengan Pasukan Jepang di Banten 1942. Sudjono later became the liaison between the Japanese military and Indonesian leaders when he arrived in Banten, the first landing place of the Japanese troops.

Mohammad Juli from Batu Sangkar, West Sumatra, who was studying ceramics manufacturing techniques in Seto, Aichi, was asked to be the radio broadcaster. He aired for 30 minutes every night from the end of 1941 until the arrival of the Japanese troops in Java in March 1942. From behind the studio booth in Tokyo, Juli proclaimed to the Indonesian people that Japan came as a liberator.

But not all of the Indonesian students supported Japan's agenda. Oemarjadi Njotowijono, business student at Hitotsubashi University who led Serikat Indonesia after Sudjono returned to Java, was very critical towards Japan's call for war. He was already suspicious much earlier that Japan was no different than the Europeans and Americans who oppressed the Asian nations. This conclusion was inferred from Japan's action to wage war against China, a fellow Asian country.

In the August 1939 edition of Kakushin magazine, Oemarjadi wrote: "Before the Japan-China war broke out, the oppressed people from our mainland Asia considered Japan as the only country that helped them from their deplorable situation."

The war inevitably put the education activities in Japan on pause. "There were almost no classes at colleges since the outbreak of the war. From early 1944, students were forced to work in weapon factories such as in Tachikawa. Many of them were also sent to the war field to practice military skills," wrote Omar Barack, a student from Samarinda who was studying political economy in Waseda University.

When the war escalated, Japan had no other choice than to increase their military forces. At the end of 1944, through Kokusai Gakuyukai (school for foreign students who were studying Japanese), the government announced an opportunity to enroll in the military academy. They were allowed to join Rikugun Shikan Gakko or Rikushi, Military Academy located in Sobudai, approximately 60 kilometers west of Tokyo.

"17 Indonesian students from Java and Sumatra volunteered to enter the Military Academy," wrote Saari Ibrahim in Suka Duka Pelajar Indonesia di Jepang.

Saari, who was from Lampung, had just completed his language education before entering the military academy. In Sobudai, he was taught war skills such as using light machine, machine gun, rifle, revolver, and hand grenade. Students from outside Java and Sumatra also joined the military academy but were stationed within the jurisdiction of the Navy.

Japan surrendered the following year after Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed by the United States.

The Japanese troops and the Indonesian students were like a husband and wife who shared the same bed but had different dreams.

After the War

The war forced many schools in Japan to close down. However, according to Hassan Shadily, a student from Pamekasan studying in Kyoto University who also joined the military academy in Sobudai, most Indonesian students were unwilling to leave Japan. They refused to return home before obtaining their degree.

According to data collected by Persada Senior, the number of Indonesian students in Japan before the war and from 1942 to 1945 was 94 students. "Surely there were still many other Indonesian students in Japan that weren't recorded in this list," wrote Hassan who would be known later as the compiler of Kamus Bahasa Indonesia-Inggris.

In the following years, those who got their degree from Japan made their contribution to their homeland. After the Indonesian independence, Sudjono worked in law at the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Oemarjadi became the ambassador in Geneva, Swiss, and also the secretary general of ASEAN. Omar Barack was the chief of the Copra Selling Pool in Japan that was responsible for supplying copra to Japan. Meanwhile, Mahjuddin Gaus opened his medical practice in Singapore after graduating from Jikei University's faculty of medicine.

That era had pushed the youths that were supposed to study to become a war force instead. Some even believed that Japan was the liberator of Indonesia from Dutch colonialism. Just like what the historian Ken'ichi Goto wrote, the Japanese troops and the Indonesian students were like a husband and wife who shared the same bed but had different dreams.

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